Second World War (1939-1945): Causes and Consequences

World War Two, usually known as WWII, was a destructive global battle that began in 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved 100 million people from more than 30 nations.

World War II was the worst conflict in human history, with an estimated 70 to 85 million deaths. Tens of millions of people died as a result of genocide (including the Holocaust), famine, massacres, and disease. To this day, it is the deadliest conflict in human history.

Causes of War

World War II had numerous causes, but it ultimately came down to Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party’s aggressive and expansionist ambitions. Furthermore, the severe Treaty of Versailles years ago simply established the groundwork for future confrontations.

Other events, such as the Spanish Civil War and the Japanese invasion of China, only highlighted the League of Nations’ ineffectiveness following the Treaty of Versailles. Both confrontations involved future Axis states, demonstrating that they could carry out their imperialistic impulses with little consequences from other nations.

1) Failure of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organization established in 1919 to maintain world peace.
It was envisioned that all countries would be members, and that any problems between them would be resolved through diplomacy rather than force.
The League of Nations was an excellent idea, but it eventually failed because not all countries joined.
Furthermore, the League lacked an army to counter military aggression, such as Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in Africa or Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in China.

2) Treaty of Versailles

Following World War I, the victorious Allied Powers gathered to determine Germany’s fate. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles.
Under this pact, Germany was required to admit responsibility for the war and pay reparations. Germany lost territory and was banned from maintaining a significant military.
Germany’s humiliation under this pact set the stage for the rise of Ultra-Nationalism in Germany.

3) Rise of Fascism

Victors’ proclaimed goals in globe War I were “to make the world safe for democracy,” and postwar Germany was forced to adopt a democratic constitution, as were the majority of the other states restored or established after the war.
However, in the 1920s, a wave of patriotic, military dictatorship emerged, known as fascism in Italian.
It pledged to meet people’s needs more effectively than democracy and positioned itself as the only reliable shield against communism.
In 1922, Benito Mussolini founded the first fascist European dictatorship during the interwar period in Italy.

4) Great Depression of 1929

The global economic downturn of the 1930s had varying effects throughout Europe and Asia.
In Europe, authoritarian and imperialist governments took control in various countries, notably Germany, Italy, and Spain.
In Asia, a resource-starved Japan began to aggressively expand, invading China and attempting to establish a sphere of influence in the Pacific.

5) Rise of Nazism

Adolf Hitler, the leader of the German National Socialist (Nazi) Party, advocated a racial version of fascism.
Hitler promised to undo the Versailles Treaty, restore German wealth and glory, and provide more Lebensraum (“living space”) for the German people, which he said deserved more as members of a superior race.
Hitler became German Chancellor in 1933 and gradually cemented himself as dictator.
Furthermore, in 1941, the Nazi dictatorship launched an extermination campaign against Slavs, Jews, and other groups deemed inferior by Hitler’s ideology.

6) Policy of Appeasement

Hitler openly rejected the Treaty of Versailles and began secretly expanding Germany’s army and weaponry.
Although Britain and France were aware of Hitler’s deeds, they believed that a stronger Germany would prevent the spread of Communism from Russia.
The Munich Agreement of September 1938 served as an example of appeasement. Britain and France agreed to allow Germany to take portions of Czechoslovakia where German speakers lived.
- Germany promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia or any other country. However, in March 1939, Germany betrayed its commitment by invading the rest of Czechoslovakia.
- Even then, neither Britain nor France were willing to engage in military action.

Course of the War

Battle of the Atlantic: September 3, 1939 to May 8, 1945

World War II’s longest continuous campaign takes place, with the Allies striking a naval blockade against Germany and igniting a struggle for control of Atlantic Ocean sea routes. The Axis, with its U-boats, responds with a counter-blockade that is at first successful, but the Allies’ use of convoys, aircraft and technology eventually turns the tide. Over five years, thousands of ships engage in 100-plus battles in the Atlantic Ocean with approximately 100,000 lives lost.

Battle of Dunkirk from May 26 to June 4, 1940

A German invasion around the French coastal town of Dunkirk separates the French and British armies, marooning Allied forces. But with Adolf Hitler halting Germany’s advance there, the Allies are able to perform a daring—and successful—evacuation, called Operation Dynamo. Germany claims victory with remaining Allied troops surrendering, but the evacuation serves to boost British morale, still referred to as the “Dunkirk spirit.”

Battle of Britain, July 10 to October 31, 1940

After a nearly four-month air campaign waged over England, Britain’s Royal Air Force and Navy respond to heavy bombing attacks from Germany’s Luftwaffe air force, including “the Blitz,” in an attempt to destroy the RAF before invading. Defense systems, including radar, and Hitler’s decision to bomb London, rather than military bases, allows Britain to regroup and eventually win the battle.

Battle of Crete: May 20 to June 1, 1941

Nazi paratroopers invade the Greek island of Crete, marking history’s first mostly airborne attack. Day one of the campaign results in heavy losses for the Germans, but fearing a sea assault, Allied forces soon withdraw and evacuate in defeat. With nearly 4,000 Allies and more than 3,000 Germans killed, however, Hitler decries “the day of the parachutist is over” and it is the country’s last airborne campaign.

The Siege of Leningrad: September 8, 1941 to January 27, 1944

German and Finnish soldiers begin a nearly 900-day siege and blockade of Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), the second-biggest Soviet city and a major center of industry. With supplies, water, electricity and transportation cut off, 1.3 million people are evacuated. As the Red Army finally begins to break through the blockade, the siege ends and the city is freed, but approximately 800,000 civilians die, most from hunger.

Battle of Moscow: October 2, 1941 to January 7, 1942

Following Germany’s Operation Barbarossa, an invasion of the Soviet Union, the Axis launches a campaign to capture the capital city of Moscow before winter sets in. In preparation, the Soviets fortify the city and bring in reinforcements. After a series of gains and losses on both sides during harsh weather, the Germans are eventually beaten back and forced to retreat.

Battle of Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941

In a surprise wave of attacks on the U.S. naval base at Oahu Island, Hawaii’s Pearl Harbor, Japan, aligned with the Axis, takes out America’s Pacific fleet (the fleet’s three aircraft carriers are not present during the attack). With approximately 2,400 U.S. troops killed and another 1,000 wounded, President Franklin D. Roosevelt calls it “a date which will live in infamy” and, the next day, the U.S. officially enters World War II, declaring war on Japan.

Second Battle of Kharkov: May 12-28, 1942

In a counter-offensive after Germany’s attack on Moscow, the Soviet Red Army attacks Kharkov, Ukraine with the aid of 1,500 tanks and 1,000 aircraft but German intelligence alerts the Axis to the campaign. Facing nearly 300,000 casualties and gaining little traction, the Soviets are forced to concede.

Battle of Midway, June 4-7, 1942

In one of America’s most important World War II naval wins, American intelligence is able to break codes to thwart a Japanese attack on the US. at Midway Island in the Pacific Ocean. With Japan focused on Midway, U.S. forces, including dive bombers, attack, sinking four of Japan’s aircraft carriers and the victory serves as a turning point in the conflict.

Battle of the Guadalcanal Campaign: August 7, 1942 to February 9, 1943

Weeks after Japan begins building a strategic airfield on Guadalcanal, part of the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific Ocean, U.S. forces launch a surprise attack, taking control of the airfield and forcing the Japanese into initial retreat. But with reinforcements arriving, hand-to-hand jungle combat follows with Japan finally retreating six months later, with 31,000 casualties and the loss of 38 ships. The Allies lose 29 ships and 7,100 soldiers.

Battle of Stalingrad, August 23, 1942 to February 2, 1943

In a conflict that marks the war’s outcome tipping in the favor of the Allies, the Red Army defends the Russian city of Stalingrad from German attack, bringing an end to the Axis’s eastern Europe advances and handing it its first decisive defeat. One of the longest, biggest and deadliest battles of the war, it ends with close to 2 million casualties, including civilians, with brutal winter weather and a Russian blockade causing many Germans to starve to death.

Operation Torch: November 8-16, 1942

The Allies invade French North Africa in an attempt to draw the Axis away from Soviet attacks on the Eastern Front and gain control of the Mediterranean shipping lanes. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower leads attacks on Oran, Algiers and Casablanca before advancing on Tunis and causing the Vichy French to realign with the Allies. The victory is touted by Winston Churchill as the “end of the beginning.”

Battle of Kursk, July 5 to August 23, 1943

Military history’s largest tank battle takes place on the Eastern Front involving an estimated 6,000 tanks, 4,000 aircraft and 2 million soldiers. In its last blitzkrieg offensive, Germany attacks the Red Army near Kursk, Russia, but due to delays and the cracking of the German Wehrmacht code, the Soviets are prepared and keep Hitler from conquering Russia.

Battle of Monte Cassino: January 17 to May 18, 1944

Advancing in Italy toward Rome, the Allies attack the Gustav Line, held by the Axis, at the mountain town of Monte Cassino, home to a Benedictine abbey dating to 524 A.D. Evacuated by the Germans, both sides tell the Vatican it will not be attacked or used in military operations. However, in a bomber attack by the Allies, the abbey is destroyed, leading to public outcry and, post-bombing, as shelter for the Nazis. Polish troops capture the abbey on May 18, leading the way for the Allied capture of Rome soon after.

Battle of Anzio: January 22 to June 5, 1944

Attempting to liberate Italy, the Allies land at Anzio, catching the Germans by surprise and quickly securing a beachhead during Operation Shingle. However, continued Axis resistance and counter-attacks ensue, resulting in a stalemate that doesn’t end until the fall of Rome. It’s seen as a failure for the Allies, although it does keep German troops from moving to France in the days before the invasion at Normandy.

Battle of the Philippine Sea: June 19-20, 1944

Japan attacks Allied forces who have advanced in the Pacific Theater to the Marianas Islands in the war’s largest aircraft carrier battle. Prepared for the strike, the United States launches a stunning counter-attack, and the battle is later called the “Marianas Turkey Shoot” due to minimal U.S. casualties and the Japanese losing some 600 aircraft, two oilers and three carriers.

Battle of Normandy, June 6 to August 30, 1944

American, British and Canadian troops storm five beaches at Normandy France June 6, known as D-Day, waging one of military history’s largest water invasions. At Omaha Beach, more than 2,000 American casualties are suffered with some 4,000 deaths that day. But by June 11, the beaches are secured and 325,000-plus forces have landed. The Allies begin their advance across Normandy, eventually liberating Paris.

Battle of Leyte Gulf: October 23-26, 1944

In World War II’s largest naval battle, the Allies invade the Philippines to retake the commonwealth and create a Southeast Asian blockade. In a counter-attack, Japan deploys its first kamikaze, or suicide, bombers. Despite heavy U.S. casualties—more than 23,000 U.S. soldiers and sailors are killed—Japan suffers nearly 420,000 casualties and the conflict serves to cripple most of Japan’s surface fleet, giving the Allies command of the Pacific.

Battle of the Bulge: December 16, 1944 to January 25, 1945

Fought in brutal, frigid winter conditions, Hitler’s forces launch a surprise, last-ditch counter-attack in an attempt to split the line of the Allies on the Western Front at the forested region of Ardennes in Belgium and Luxembourg. The battle becomes known as Battle of the Bulge, because the Germans created a “bulge” around the area of the Ardennes forest in pushing through the American defensive line.

Battle of Iwo Jima: February 19 to March 26, 1945

Fought 660 miles south of Tokyo, U.S. Marines invade the volcanic island of Iwo Jima seeking a strategic staging area for a possible attack on Japan’s mainland. Weeks of bloody battle follow and while the Americans eventually gain control, 7,000 Marines are killed, with 20,000 wounded. All but 216 of 18,000 Japanese soldiers are killed. The island later serves as an emergency landing sight for B-29 bombers.

Battle of Berlin, April 16 to May 2, 1945

Soviet forces, with support from American and British aircraft, launch an offensive against the German capital of Berlin in one of World War II’s final major battles. As the Red Army encircles the city, capturing Gestapo headquarters, Hilter commits suicide April 30 in the Führerbunker and Germany surrenders a few days later, essentially ending the war.

Battle of Okinawa: April 1 to June 22, 1945

World War II’s final major battle—and one of the war’s bloodiest—begins Easter Sunday as U.S. Army and Marine forces invade Okinawa in the Ryukyus island chain southwest of Japan with the orders of taking the island to execute air strikes against Japan and create a blockade.

Aftermath of World War II

New Superpowers

World War II altered the standing of governments and continents. Britain and France lost their dominant positions as superpowers to the United States and the Soviet Union.

Start of Decolonisation

Following the war, Britain and France were confronted with a variety of domestic and international issues. Both of them could no longer maintain their respective colonies. Thus, the postwar world saw the end of colonialism in Africa and Asia.

Start of Cold War

Following the end of the war, a conference was held at Potsdam, Germany, to establish peace treaties. The countries that fought alongside Hitler lost land and were forced to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany, including its capital Berlin, was divided into four parts.
The zones were to be administered by Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union.
The three Western Allies and the Soviet Union disagreed on many issues, and Germany was eventually separated into two countries: East Germany, which had a Communist government, and West Germany, which had a democratic state.
This created the groundwork for the Cold War.

Birth of UN

One of the most significant outcomes of the conflict was the establishment of the United Nations Organisation.
Despite the League’s failure to deliver, mankind did not give up hope of making the world a better and happier place to live.
The UN Charter enshrines humanity’s hopes and ideals, on which countries can collaborate to ensure long-term peace.
However, the formation of the UN was agreed upon long before the end of World War II under the Atlantic Charter.

New Economic World Order

The Bretton Woods Conference, formally known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, met in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (July 1-22, 1944) during World War II to make financial arrangements for the postwar world following Germany and Japan’s predicted defeat.
It devised a plan for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD-now known as the World Bank) to provide long-term capital to states in desperate need of foreign aid, as well as a plan for the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to finance short-term imbalances in international payments in order to stabilize exchange rates.
Furthermore, the US dollar was designated as a reserve currency for global trade.

WW II: A Critical Analysis

The Second World War was the most devastating catastrophe to date. With countless casualties, widespread property destruction, mass slaughter and famine, and the use of the first nuclear weapons, the consequences are extremely complicated.
It also introduced a revolutionary idea of conflict, the Cold conflict, in which there are no direct or overt military clashes but just fierce and covert propaganda. The globe during and after globe War II had a significant impact on the dynamics of international relations.
The tussle in the United Nations, particularly between the United States and Russia, the relationship between the United States and Japan, numerous instabilities in the Middle East, the race in Central Asia, the drive against nuclear nonproliferation, and power dynamics across the Asia-Pacific are all consequences of World War II. Many people see World War II as a ‘Good War,’ yet in a critical sense, the term ‘Good War’ is misleading. Despite the fact that the Second World War resulted in the abolition of fascism and imperialism, as well as the expansion of democratic enthusiasm, the events leading up to the war and preceding the conflict undermine this label of a ‘Good conflict’.
One should not miss the fact that the Second World War was preceded by issues such as foolish appeasement tactics by Britain and France, passivity on the part of the US, and the most terrible occurrence of treachery with Czechoslovakia (under the Munich Pact).
To alleviate its own dread of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union struck a non-aggression pact with Germany. The story would have been dramatically different if the governments had united to oppose Nazi atrocities while repressing their personal irrational interests. Even during the war, these nations were not immune to such untenable views; for example, when the Soviet Union asked Britain to start a ‘Second Front’ against Germany in Western Europe, Britain refused.
It was pretty unavoidable for members of the ‘Allied nations’ to oppose the Axis force. They banded together and won the struggle against fascism. It brought an end to fascism and colonialism while also establishing several new independent nations. But that’s only a small portion of the narrative. Just four years later, in 1949, divisions resurfaced and Europe was separated into two camps by the ‘iron wall’. The United States and the Soviet Union again clashed, and further developments resulted in the cold war, which continues to some extent.